LESSON 25 PREPOSITIONS (PETERSON’S TOEFL SUCCESS)

(PETERSON’S TOEFL SUCCESS)

LESSON 25

PREPOSITIONS

Errors with prepositions are among the most difficult errors to catch. Preposition use in English is complex. For every rule, there seems to be an exception. Recently, there have been more errors involving prepositions in the Structure part of TOEFL test, and the errors have been more difficult to spot. Prepositions are used in the following ways: √ In adverbial phrases that show time, place, and other relationships in the morning on Pennsylvania Avenue to the park by a student √ After certain nouns a cause of a reason for a solution to √ After certain adjectives and participles different from aware of disappointed in √ After certain verbs combine with rely on refer to √ In phrasal prepositions (two- or three-word prepositions) according to together with instead of √ In certain set expressions by far in general on occasion at last There are two main types of preposition errors that you may see in the Structure part of the test: errors in preposition choice and incorrect inclusion or omission of prepositions. ERRORS IN PREPOSITION CHOICE The wrong preposition is used according to the context of the sentence. here are two particular situations involving preposition choice that are often tested in Structure: √ Errors with from . . . to and between . . . and Both of these expressions are used to give the starting time and ending time. They can also be used to show relationships of place and various other relationships. He lived in Seattle from 1992 to 1997. He lived in Seattle between 1992 and 1997. Route 66 ran from Chicago to Los Angeles. Route 66 ran between Chicago and Los Angeles. Errors usually involve an incorrect pairing of those words or the incorrect use of other prepositions: between A to B                                       from X and Y between A with B                                    since X to Y √ Errors with since, for, and in Since is used before a point in time with the present perfect tense—but never with the past tense. For is used before a period of time with the present perfect and other tenses. In is used before certain points in time (years, centuries, decades) with the past tense and other tenses—but never with the present perfect tense. He’s lived here since 1995. He’s lived here for two years. He moved here in 1995. Errors involve the use of one of these prepositions for another: He’s lived here in 1995. He’s lived here since two years. He moved here since 1995. Sample Items The pitch of a tuning fork (A) depends of (B) the size (C) and shape of its (D) arms. The correct answer is (B). The preposition after the verb depend is on, not of. The Alaskan Pipeline runs (A) between (B) Prudhoe Bay on the Arctic Coastal Plain to the port (C) of Valdez, a distance (D) of 789 miles. The correct answer is (B). The pattern is from . . . to. Candles were mankind’s (A) chief source of (B) illumination since (C) at least (D) 2,000 years. The correct answer is (C). Before a period of time (2,000 years), the preposition for should be used. INCORRECT INCLUSION OR OMISSION OF PREPOSITIONS A preposition is used when one is not needed or not used when one is needed. Sample Items According many (A) critics, Mark Twain’s novel Huckleberry Finn is his greatest (B) work and is one of the (C) greatest American novels (D) ever written. The correct answer is (A). The preposition to has been omitted from the phrase according to. Some (A) of the most of (B) spectacular waterfalls in the (C) eastern United States are found in (D) the Pocono Mountains of Pennsylvania. The correct answer is (B). The preposition of should not be used in this phrase. (When most means “majority,” it can be used in the phrase most of the. “Most of the people agree . . . ,” for example. However, in this sentence, most is part of the superlative form of the adjective spectacular, so it cannot be used with of.) EXERCISE 25.1 Focus: Identifying correct and incorrect preposition choice Directions: Underline the prepositions that correctly complete the following sentences. 1 Wage rates depend (in/on) part (from/on) the general prosperity (of/for) the economy. 2 (For/To) an injection to be effective (on/against) tetanus, it must be administered (by/within) 72 hours (of/for) the injury. 3 The invention (of/for) the hand-cranked freezer opened the door (for/to) commercial ice-cream production, and (for/since) then, the ice-cream industry has grown (in/into) a 4-billion-dollar-a-year industry. 4 (At/On) the time (of/in) the Revolutionary War, the North American colonies were merely a long string (with/of) settlements (along/among) the Atlantic Coast (between/from) Maine and Georgia. 5 The probability (of/for) two people (in/on) a group (of/for) ten people having birthdays (in/on) the same day is about one (in/of) twenty. 6 Showboats were floating theaters that tied up (at/to) towns (in/on) the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers to bring entertainment and culture (to/at) the people (on/in) the frontier. 7 Scrimshaw, the practice (of/for) carving ornate designs (in/on) ivory, was first practiced (by/of) sailors working (by/with) sail needles while (in/on) long sea voyages. 8 Assateague Island, (off/of) the coast (off/of) Virginia, is famous (for/to) its herds (of/with) wild ponies. 9 (In/On) order (for/to) an object to be visible, light must travel (from/for) that object (at/to) a person’s eyes. 10 (In/On) the 1930s and 1940s, when train travel was (on/at) its peak, passengers could look forward (for/to) wonderful meals (on/at) trains. 11 (In/Since) the 1960s, op art, which was based (in/on) scientific theories (of/for) optics, employed patterns (of/in) lines and colors that seemed to change shape as the viewer looked (on/at) them. 12 The first national convention devoted (for/to) the issue (of/with) women’s rights, organized partly (of/by) Elizabeth Cady Stanton, was held (in/on) her hometown (in/of) Seneca Falls, New York, (in/on) 1848. EXERCISE 25.2 Focus: Identifying and correcting errors involving the inclusion or omission of prepositions Directions: If there is a preposition unnecessarily included in a sentence, mark that sentence X and underline the preposition. If there is a preposition incorrectly omitted from a sentence, mark that sentence X, underline the words before and after the missing preposition, and write the correct preposition on the line after the sentence. If the sentence is correctly written, mark that sentence C. ________ 1 According polls taken throughout the twentieth century, Lincoln and Washington are the preeminent American presidents. ________________________________________________________________________ ________ 2 Today, many varieties of fruit are available all year thanks improved storage and shipping techniques. ________________________________________________________________________ ________ 3 The origin of the Moon remains a mystery. ________________________________________________________________________ ________ 4 Traffic jams can cause of pollution, delays, and short tempers. ________________________________________________________________________ ________ 5 The sun’s rays heat the earth’s surface, on which then radiates the heat into the air. ________________________________________________________________________ ________ 6 A warm-blooded animal is one that keeps the same body temperature regardless the air temperature. ________________________________________________________________________ ________ 7 Charlie Parker, considered by many the greatest improviser in the history of jazz, influenced many other jazz musicians. ________________________________________________________________________ ________ 8 Most the people are aware of the need to visit dentists regularly. ________________________________________________________________________ ________ 9 Muscle fibers are attached bones by tendons. ________________________________________________________________________ ________ 10 In his essay Self Reliance, Ralph W. Emerson told to his readers why they should not depend on the ideas of others. ________________________________________________________________________ ________ 11 The crayfish is a freshwater crustacean related the lobster. ________________________________________________________________________ ________ 12 Charles Goren was an expert the game of bridge. ________________________________________________________________________ ________ 13 Stomata are the tiny openings in the leaves of plants through which oxygen and carbon dioxide pass. ________________________________________________________________________ ________ 14 Ducks have small oil glands by which keep their feathers oily and repel water. ________________________________________________________________________ ________ 15 The tail of a comet always points away the sun. ________________________________________________________________________ ________ 16 Lichens grow in extreme environments in where no other plant can exist. ________________________________________________________________________ ________ 17 Not all of waterfalls are formed in the same way. ________________________________________________________________________ EXERCISE 25.3 Focus: Identifying and correcting preposition errors (Note: One or two items in this exercise do not focus on preposition errors. These are marked in the answer key with an asterisk.)DIR Directions: For Sentence Completion items, mark the answer choice—(A), (B), (C), or (D)—which correctly completes the sentence. For Error Identification items, circle the underlined portion of the sentence that would not be considered correct. 1 __________ seed of a flowering plant is covered by a dense protective coat. (A) On each (B) Each (C) Each of (D) That each 2 Dynamite is ordinarily detonated ________________ called a blasting cap. (A) a device is used (B) that a device (C) with a device (D) the use of a device 3 Water polo is a game in which (A) is played in the water (B) by two (C) teams, each with (D) seven players. 4 __________ 1900 there were some 300 bicycle factories in the United States that produced more than a million bicycles. (A) In (B) Because in (C) It was in (D) That in 5 A thick layer of fat called blubber keeps whales warm even __________ coldest water. (A) though the (B) in the (C) the (D) of the 6 Many of (A) radio stations began (B) broadcasting (C) baseball games during (D) the 1920s. 7 __________ the United States, the general movement of air masses is from west to east. (A) Across (B) To cross (C) They cross (D) It’s across 8 The economy of (A) Maine is based to a (B) great extent in its (C) forests, which cover 80 percent of (D) its surface area. 9 The removal of (A) waste materials (B) is essential to (C) all forms of live (D). 10 The bark of a tree thickens _________. (A) with age (B) it gets older (C) as older (D) by age 11 John Diefenbaker, Prime Minister of Canada during (A) 1957 to 1963, is given (B) much of (C) the credit for the adoption (D) of the Canadian Bill of Rights. 12 A substance that is harmless to a person who has no allergies can cause mild to serious reactions in a person ____________ allergies. (A) has (B) which having (C) can have (D) with 13 The first stage on (A) the manufacturing of all (B) types of (C) clothing is the cutting of (D) the material. 14 All of (A) the wheat grown throughout (B) the world belongs (C) one of fourteen (D) species. 15 In 1886, a number of national unions formed the American Federation of Labor __________________________________. (A) Samuel Gompers was its leader (B) under the leadership of Samuel Gompers (C) which, under Samuel Gompers’ leadership (D) Samuel Gompers led it 16 Harmonicas and autoharps ______________ folk instruments. (A) are examples (B) for example (C) are examples of (D) as examples of 17 There are approximately (A) 600 different (B) species of (C) trees native of (D) the continental United States. 18 ______________ industries, such as banking and travel, in which computers are not a convenience but a necessity. (A) Where some (B) In some (C) Some (D) There are some 19 Waterwheels, which (A) appeared on (B) the fourth century B.C.E., were probably the first (C) machines not powered by (D) humans or animals. 20 Since (A) centuries, Southwestern Indian tribes have valued (B) turquoise and have used (C) it in jewelry (D).

ANSWER KEY