LESSON 35.2 Inference and Purpose Items (PETERSON’S TOEFL SUCCESS)

(PETERSON’S TOEFL SUCCESS)

LESSON 35.2

Inference and Purpose Items

INFERENCE ITEMS As in the Listening section, there are questions in the Reading section that require you to make inferences. The answers to these questions are not directly provided in the passage—you must “read between the lines.” In other words, you must make conclusions based indirectly on information in the passage. Many test-takers find these questions to be the most difficult type of reading question. Inference questions may be phrased in several ways. Many of these questions contain some form of the words infer or imply. √ Which of the following can be inferred from the passage? It can be inferred from the passage that . . . The author implies that . . . Which of the following does the passage imply? Which of the following would be the most reasonable guess about ________? The author suggests that . . . It is probable that . . . √ √ √ √ √ √ There will probably be from five to eight of these questions per Reading section. Sample Item A star very similar to the sun is one of the nearest stars to Earth. That star is Alpha Centauri, just 4.3 light-years away. Other than our own sun, the nearest star to the earth is a tiny red star, not visible without a telescope, called Proxima Centauri. It can be inferred from this passage that (A) Proxima Centauri is similar to the earth’s sun. (B) Proxima Centauri is the closest star to the earth. (C) Alpha Centauri is invisible from the earth. (D) Proxima Centauri is less than 4.3 light-years from the earth. The correct answer is (D). Choice (A) is not a valid inference; Alpha Centauri is similar to the sun, but Proxima Centauri is “a tiny red star.” Choice (B) also cannot be inferred; the closest star to the earth is our own sun. Nor can choice (C) be inferred; Proxima Centauri is invisible, but there is no information as to whether Alpha Centauri is. Because Alpha Centauri is 4.3 light-years away, it can be inferred that Alpha Centauri, the closest star, is less than that. PURPOSE ITEMS These items ask why the author of a passage mentions some piece of information, or includes a quote from a person or a study, or uses some particular word or phrase. Sample Items √ Why does the author mention ________? The author refers to ________ to indicate that . . . The author quotes ________ in order to show . . . The phrase ________ in line ________ is mentioned to illustrate the effect of . . . √ √ √ Sample Answer Choices √ To strengthen the argument that ________ To provide an example of ________ To challenge the idea that ________ To contradict ________ To support the proposal to ________ √ √ √ √ There are usually from one to four purpose questions per Reading section. EXERCISE 35.2 Focus: Answering inference and purpose questions Directions: Read the following passages and the questions about them. Decide which of the choices—(A), (B), (C), or (D)—best answers the question, and mark the answer. Passage 1 Pigeons have been taught to recognize human facial expressions, upsetting long-held beliefs that only humans had evolved the sophisticated nervous systems to perform such a feat. In recent experiments at the University of Iowa, eight trained pigeons were shown photographs of people displaying emotions of happiness, anger, surprise, and disgust. The birds learned to distinguish between these expressions. Not only that, but they were also able to correctly identify the same expressions on photographs of unfamiliar faces. Their achievement does not suggest, of course, that the pigeons had any idea what the human expressions meant. Some psychologists have theorized that because of the importance of facial expression to human communication, humans developed special nervous systems capable of recognizing subtle expressions. The pigeons cast doubt on that idea, however. In fact, the ability to recognize facial expressions of emotion is not necessarily innate even in human babies, but may have to be learned in much the same way pigeons learn. In experiments conducted several years ago at the University of Iowa, it was found that pigeons organize images of things into the same logical categories that humans do. None of this work would come as any surprise to Charles Darwin, who long ago wrote about the continuity of mental development from animals to humans. 1 From the passage, which of the following can be inferred about pigeons? (A) They can show the same emotions humans can. They can understand human emotions. They can only identify the expressions of people they are familiar with. They have more sophisticated nervous systems than was once thought. (B) (C) (D) 2 The passage implies that, at birth, human babies (A) have nervous systems capable of recognizing subtle expressions. can learn from pigeons. are not able to recognize familiar faces. may not be able to identify basic emotions through facial expressions. (B) (C) (D) 3 Why does the author mention the experiments conducted several years ago at the University of Iowa? (A) They proved that pigeons were not the only kind of animal with the ability to recognize facial expressions. (B) They were contradicted by more recent experiments. (C) They proved that the ability to recognize human expressions was not innate in human babies. (D) They showed the similarities between the mental organization of pigeons and that of humans. 4 If Charles Darwin could have seen the results of this experiment, his most probable response would have been one of (A) rejection. surprise. agreement. amusement. (B) (C) (D) Passage 2 The spectacular and famous eruptions of Old Faithful geyser in Yellowstone National Park do not occur like clockwork. Before the earthquake of 1959, eruptions came every 60 to 65 minutes; today they are as little as 30 minutes or as much as 90 minutes apart. Changes in weather and in atmospheric pressure can influence the regularity of the eruptions and the height of the column. The geyser usually gives a warning: a short burst of steam. Then a graceful jet of water and steam rises up to 150 feet in the air, unfurling in the sunlight with the colors of the rainbow playing across it. The eruption is only the visible part of the spectacle. In order for a geyser to erupt, there are three necessary ingredients: a heat source, a water supply, and a plumbing system. In the geyser fields of Yellowstone, a steady supply of heat is provided by hot spots of molten rock as little as two miles below the surface. The water supply of Old Faithful comes from groundwater and rainfall, but other geysers in Yellowstone are located on river banks. Geysers have various types of plumbing systems. Geologists studying Old Faithful theorized that it had a relatively simple one consisting of an underground reservoir connected to the surface by a long, narrow tube. In 1992 a probe equipped with a video camera and heat sensors was lowered into the geyser and confirmed the existence of a deep, narrow shaft and of a cavern, about the size of a large automobile, about 45 feet beneath the surface. As water seeps into Old Faithful’s underground system, it is heated at the bottom like water in a teakettle. But while water in a kettle rises because of convection, the narrow tube of the plumbing system prevents free circulation. Thus, the water in the upper tube is far cooler than the water at the bottom. The weight of the water puts pressure on the column, and this raises the boiling point of the water near the bottom. Finally, the confined, superheated water rises, and the water in the upper part of the column warms and expands, some of it welling out of the mouth of the geyser. This abruptly decreases the pressure on the superheated water, and sudden, violent boiling occurs throughout much of the length of the tube, producing a tremendous amount of steam and forcing the water out of the vent in a superheated mass. This is the eruption, and it continues until the water reservoir is emptied or the steam runs out. There are two main types of geysers. A fountain geyser shoots water out in various directions through a pool. A columnar geyser such as Old Faithful shoots water in a fairly narrow jet from a conical formation at the mouth of the geyser that looks like a miniature volcano. 5 It can be inferred from the passage that the earthquake of 1959 made Old Faithful geyser erupt (A) more frequently. less regularly. more suddenly. less spectacularly. (B) (C) (D) 6 Why does the author mention a rainbow in paragraph 1? (A) The column of water forms an arc in the shape of a rainbow. (B) In the sunlight, the column of water may produce the colors of the rainbow. (C) Rainbows can be seen quite frequently in Yellowstone National Park. (D) The rainbow, like the geyser, is an example of the beauty of nature. 7 It can be inferred from the passage that which of the following would be LEAST likely to cause any change in Old Faithful’s eruptions? (A) A drop in atmospheric pressure An earthquake A rise in the water level of a nearby river A period of unusually heavy rainfall (B) (C) (D) 8 The passage implies that Old Faithful would probably not erupt at all if (A) the tubes of the geyser system were wide. the climate suddenly changed. there had not been an earthquake in 1959. the underground tubes were longer. (B) (C) (D) 9 The author implies that, compared to Old Faithful, many other geysers (A) are more famous. have a more complex plumbing system. shoot water much higher into the air. have far larger reservoirs. (B) (C) (D) 10 The author mentions the probe that was lowered into Old Faithful in 1992 to indicate that (A) it is difficult to investigate geysers. (B) the geologists’ original theory about Old Faithful was correct. (C) Old Faithful’s structure was more intricate than had been believed. (D) some surprising discoveries were made. 11 The author probably compares the formation at the mouth of Old Faithful with a volcano because of the formation’s (A) age. power. size. shape (B) (C) (D) Passage 3 In 1881, a new type of weed began spreading across the northern Great Plains. Unlike other weeds, the tumbleweed did not spend its life rooted to the soil; instead, it tumbled and rolled across fields in the wind. The weed had sharp, spiny leaves that could lacerate the flesh of ranchers and horses alike. It exploited the vast area of the plains, thriving in regions too barren to support other plants. With its ability to generate and disseminate numerous seeds quickly, it soon became the scourge of the prairies. To present-day Americans, the tumbleweed symbolizes the Old West. They read the Zane Grey novels in which tumbleweeds drift across stark western landscapes and see classic western movies in which tumbleweeds share scenes with cowboys and covered wagons. Yet just over a century ago, the tumbleweed was a newcomer. The first sign of the invasion occurred in North and South Dakota in the late 1870s. Farmers had noticed the sudden appearance of the new, unusual weed. One group of immigrants, however, did not find the weed at all unfamiliar. The tumbleweed, it turns out, was a native of southern Russia, where it was known as Tartar thistle. It was imported to the United States by unknown means. Frontier settlers gave the plants various names: saltwort, Russian cactus, and wind witch. But botanists at the Department of Agriculture preferred the designation Russian thistle as the plant’s common name. However, these botanists had a much harder time agreeing on the plant’s scientific name. In general, botanists compare a plant to published accounts of similar plants, or to samples kept as specimens. Unfortunately, no book described the weed and no samples existed in herbaria in the United States. 12 Which of the following can be inferred about tumbleweeds? (A) They have strong, deep roots. They require a lot of care. They reproduce efficiently. They provided food for ranchers and animals. (B) (C) (D) 13 The passage suggests that most present-day Americans (A) consider the tumbleweed beneficial. don’t know when tumbleweeds came to North America. have never heard of tumbleweeds. believe tumbleweeds are newcomers to the United States. (B) (C) (D) 14 The author mentions the novels of Zane Grey and classic western movies (paragraph 2) because they (A) tell the story of the invasion of tumbleweeds. are sources of popular information about tumbleweeds. present inaccurate pictures of tumbleweeds. were written long before tumbleweeds were present in the United States. (B) (C) (D) 15 It is probable that the “group of immigrants” mentioned in paragraph 3 (A) was from southern Russia. had lived in North and South Dakota for many years. imported tumbleweeds into the United States. wrote several accounts about tumbleweeds. (B) (C) (D) 16 From the passage it can be inferred that the botanists at the Department of Agriculture (A) could not find any tumbleweeds on the plains. (B) gave the names saltwort, Russian cactus, and wind witch to the tumbleweed. (C) could not decide on a common designation for the tumbleweed. (D) found it difficult to classify the plant scientifically. Passage 4 For most modern airports, the major design problem is scale—how to allow adequate space on the ground for maneuvering wide-body jets while permitting convenient and rapid movement of passengers departing, arriving, or transferring from one flight to another. Most designs for airport terminals take one of four approaches. In the linear plan, the building may be straight or curved. The passengers board aircraft parked next to the terminal. This plan works well for small airports that need to provide boarding areas for only a few aircraft at a time. In the pier plan, narrow corridors or piers extend from a central building. This plan allows many aircraft to park next to the building. However, it creates long walking distances for passengers. In the satellite plan, passengers board aircraft from small terminals that are separated from the main terminals. Passengers reach the satellites by way of shuttle trains or underground passageways that have moving sidewalks. The transporter plan employs some system of transport to move passengers from the terminal building to the aircraft. If buses are used, the passengers must climb a flight of stairs to board the aircraft. If mobile lounges are used, they can link up directly with the aircraft and protect passengers from the weather. 17 It can be inferred that scale would not pose a major design problem at airports if (A) airports were larger. aircraft did not need so much space to maneuver on the ground. other forms of transportation were more efficient. airplanes could fly faster. (B) (C) (D) 18 The linear plan would probably be best at a(n) (A) busy airport. airport used by many small aircraft. airport with only a few arrivals or departures. airport that serves a large city. (B) (C) (D) 19 The passage implies that the term “satellite plan” is used because (A) satellites are launched and tracked from these sites. small terminals encircle the main terminal like satellites around a planet. the plan makes use of the most modern, high-technology equipment. airports that make use of this plan use data from weather satellites. (B) (C) (D) 20 The passage suggests that shuttle trains transfer passengers to satellite terminals from (A) the main terminal. airplanes. downtown. other satellite terminals. (B) (C) (D) 21 It can be inferred that mobile lounges would be more desirable than buses when (A) passengers are in a hurry. flights have been delayed. the weather is bad. passengers need to save money. (B) (C) (D)

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