LESSON 36.1 Vocabulary Items (PETERSON’S TOEFL SUCCESS)

(PETERSON’S TOEFL SUCCESS)

LESSON 36.1

Vocabulary Items

When ETS eliminated the first section of Section 3, which consisted of 30 discrete vocabulary items, it replaced them with an increased number of questions (from 12 to 18) about the vocabulary in the reading passages. Most test-takers find that, in general, it is easier to answer vocabulary questions based on the context of a passage than it is to answer questions about vocabulary in single, isolated sentences. In vocabulary items, you must determine which of four words or phrases can best substitute for a word or words in the passage. Most of the questions ask about single words (usually nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs). Some ask about two- or three-word phrases. Sometimes two of the answer choices for these items might be “correct” definitions of the word that is asked about. In those cases, you must decide which of the two is correct in the context of the passage. In ordinary reading, there are several clues that can help you to determine the meaning of an unknown word: √ Synonyms The first state to institute compulsory education was Massachusetts, which made it mandatory for students to attend school twelve weeks a year. The word mandatory is a synonym for the word compulsory. √ Examples Many gardeners use some kind of mulch, such as chopped leaves, peat moss, grass clippings, pine needles, or wood chips, to stop the growth of weeds and hold in moisture. From the examples given, it is clear that mulch is plant matter. √ Contrast In the 1820s, the Southern states supported improvements in the national transportation system, but the Northern states balked. Since the Southern states supported improvements, and since a word signaling contrast (but) is used, it is clear that the Northern states disagreed with this idea, and that the word balked must mean objected or refused. √ General context In a desert, vegetation is so scanty as to be incapable of supporting any large human population. As is generally known, deserts contain little vegetation, so clearly the word scanty must mean scarce or barely sufficient. When answering vocabulary items, you must most often depend on the general context of the sentence to help you choose the correct answer. You should follow these steps to answer vocabulary items: 1 Look at the word being asked about and the four answer choices. If you are familiar with the word, guess which answer is correct. Do NOT mark your answer sheet yet. 2 Read the sentence in which the word appears. If you were familiar with the word and guessed at the answer, make sure that the word that you chose fits with the word as it is used in the sentence. If you were unfamiliar with the word, see if context clues in the sentence or in the sentences before or after help you guess the meaning. 3 If you are not sure which answer is correct, read the sentence with each of the four answer choices in place. Does one seem more logical, given the context of the sentence, than the other three? If not, do any seem illogical? (You can eliminate those.) 4 If you’re still not sure, make the best guess you can and go on. Sample Items In Britain’s North American colonies, university-trained physicians were at a premium. At the time of the Revolution, there were probably only around 400 physicians and some 3,000 practitioners who had on-the-job training as barber-surgeons or physicians’ apprentices. Whether university trained or not, none had much knowledge of the causes of disease, and the “cures” they often recommended— bleeding, blistering, and the use of violent purgatives—were at best ineffective and at worst lethal. 1. The phrase at a premium in the first sentence is closest in meaning to (A) well-paid. (B) not very numerous. (C) very experienced. (D) not well-respected. The correct answer is (B). The phrase “only around 400” indicates that there was a shortage of university-trained physicians. 2. Which of the following words could best be substituted for the word lethal in the last sentence? (A) Impractical (B) Brutal (C) Impossible (D) Deadly The correct answer is (D). The phrase “at best ineffective and at worst lethal” indicates that the correct answer must describe a situation much worse than ineffective. Choices (A) and (C) don’t create logical sentences when substituted for lethal. Choice (B), brutal (which means savage or violent), is more logical, but only choice (D) is synonymous with lethal. EXERCISE 36.1 Focus: Using context clues to answer “click-on” items Directions: Write the word from the passage that is the closest in meaning (or most nearly opposite in meaning) in the blanks. Passage 1 Everyday life in the British colonies of North America may now seem glamorous, especially as reflected in antique shops. But judged by modern standards, it was quite a drab existence. For most people, the labor was heavy and constant from daybreak to nightfall. Basic comforts now taken for granted were lacking. Public buildings were often not heated at all. Drafty homes were heated only by inefficient fireplaces. There was no running water or indoor plumbing. The flickering light of candles and whale oil lamps provided inadequate illumination. There was no sanitation service to dispose of garbage; instead, long-snouted hogs were allowed to roam the streets, consuming refuse. 1 Find the word or phrase in paragraph 1 that is most nearly OPPOSITE in meaning to the word glamorous. __________ 2 Find the word or phrase in paragraph 2 that is closest in meaning to the word refuse. __________ Passage 2 Blood is a complex fluid composed of several types of cells suspended in plasma, the liquid portion of the blood. Red blood cells make up the vast majority of blood cells. Hemoglobin in the red blood cells picks up oxygen in the blood and delivers it to the tissues of the body. Then these cells carry carbon dioxide from the body’s cells to the lungs. Think of it as a railroad that hauls freight. The cargo (oxygen) is loaded into a railroad car (hemoglobin). Then the locomotive (a red blood cell) carries the cars where they are needed. After unloading, the train returns with a different cargo (carbon dioxide) and the process starts over. Hemoglobin is the part of the cell that traps oxygen and carbon dioxide. It contains a compound called porphyrin that consists of a carbon-based ring with four nitrogen atoms facing a central hole. The nitrogen bonds to an iron atom, and the iron then captures one molecule of oxygen or carbon dioxide. 3 Find the word or phrase in paragraph 2 that is closest in meaning to the word hauls. __________ 4 Find the word or phrase in paragraph 2 that is closest in meaning to the word cargo. __________ 5 Find the word or phrase in paragraph 3 that is closest in meaning to the word traps. __________ Passage 3 Taking over as president of Harvard in 1869, Charles W. Eliot pioneered a break with the traditional curriculum. The usual course of studies at U.S. universities at the time emphasized classical languages, mathematics, rhetoric, and ethics. Eliot initiated a system under which most required courses were dropped in favor of elective courses. The university increased its offerings and stressed physical and social sciences, the fine arts, and modern languages. Soon other universities all over the United States were following Harvard’s lead. 6 Find the word or phrase in the passage that is closest in meaning to the word pioneered. __________ 7 Find the word or phrase in the passage that is closest in meaning to the word curriculum. __________ 8 Find the word or phrase in the passage that is closest in meaning to the word emphasized. __________ 9 Find the word or phrase in the passage that is most nearly OPPOSITE in meaning to the word required. __________ Passage 4 The Pleiades, named after the seven sisters of Greek mythology, is a star cluster that can be seen with the naked eye. It appears as a dippershaped group of stars high overhead on autumn evenings. It is so young (only a few million years old) that many of its stars appear to be surrounded by a luminous blue mist. This haze is actually starlight reflecting off debris left behind after the stars were formed. Our own Sun’s stellar neighborhood probably looked much like this just after its formation. 10 Find the word or phrase in the passage that is closest in meaning to the word cluster. __________ 11 Find the word or phrase in the passage that is closest in meaning to the word mist. __________ Passage 5 Interior designers may claim that a solitary goldfish displayed in a glass bowl makes a striking minimalist fashion statement, but according to a team of British researchers, goldfish learn from each other and are better off in groups than alone. In one experiment, two groups of goldfish were released into a large aquarium separated by a transparent plastic panel. On one side, food was hidden in various locations. The fish on that side foraged for the food while the fish on the other side of the clear panel watched. When released into the feeding area, these observant fish hunted for the food exactly in the proper locations. Other experiments showed that fish raised in a group are less fearful of attack than fish raised alone. And not only are they less skittish, they are also better at avoiding enemies in the event of actual danger. 12 Find the word or phrase in the passage that is closest in meaning to the word solitary. __________ 13 Find the word or phrase in the passage that is closest in meaning to the word transparent. __________ 14 Find the word or phrase in the passage that is closest in meaning to the word foraged. __________ 15 Find the word or phrase in the passage that is closest in meaning to the word skittish. __________ Passage 6 Although business partnerships enjoy certain advantages over sole proprietorships, there are drawbacks as well. One problem that may afflict partnerships is the fact that each general partner is liable for the debts incurred by any other partner. Moreover, he or she is responsible for lawsuits resulting from any partner’s malpractice. Interpersonal conflicts may also plague partnerships. All partnerships, from law firms to rock groups, face the problem of personal disagreements. Another problem is the difficulty of dissolving partnerships. It is much easier to dissolve a sole proprietorship than it is to terminate a partnership. Generally, a partner who wants to leave must find someone—either an existing partner or an outsider acceptable to the remaining partners—to buy his or her interest in the firm. a sole proprietorship than it is to 16 Find the word or phrase in the passage that is most nearly OPPOSITE in meaning to the word drawbacks. __________ 17 Find the word or phrase in the passage that is closest in meaning to the word liable. ________ 18 Find the word or phrase in the passage that is closest in meaning to the word conflicts. __________ 19 Find the word or phrase in the passage that is closest in meaning to the word plague. __________ 20 Find the word or phrase in the passage that is closest in meaning to the word dissolve. __________

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